Chapter Report Unit 2 :: Technologies for Learning

What are Technologies for Learning? 

    Technologies for learning combat boredom by providing a change of pace from lecture and seatwork and by adding motivational features that excite learner interest. They also provide a means for individualizing instruction to a greater degree. Some of the technologies discussed in this chapter are specifically designed as independent study methods, allowing individuals to progress at their own pace. Others are designed to be used in small groups; as such, they enlist the energies of students to assist those who need extra explanation, coaching, and practice. All of these technologies for learning centre on the provision of ample opportunities for practice. Their creators were guided by different theoretical perspectives, so they have different rationales for doing so. All the technologies discussed here emphasize active and continuous practice of relevant knowledge, skills, and attitudes, and all, as part of the toral system, provide for rapid, effective feedback. Many of them are driven by the search for ways to build interpersonal feedback into all instruction. 

Cooperative Learning 

    Cooperative learning involves small heterogeneous groups of students working together to achieve a common academic goal or task while working together to learn collaboration and social skills. Group members are interdependent that is, each is dependent on the others for achieving their goal. As a technology for learning, cooperative learning involves active participation by all students. Individual differences among students are minimized as they practice the content and social skills. These should be practised in a realistic, often simulated context while receiving feedback from peers, the teacher, or a computer. 

    Advantages: 

1. Active learning

2. Social skills

3. Interdependence 

4. Individual accountability

    Limitations:

1. Student compatibility

2. Student dependency

3. Time-consuming 

4. Individualist

5. logistical obstacles.  

    Integration:

    Students can learn cooperatively not only by being taught with materials but also by producing materials themselves. For example, elementary students can work together to design and produce a videotape or a PowerPoint presentation on a topic related to historical content being studied. The students can share their co-operatively developed materials with the rest of the class.

    Learning Together Model:

    Johnson and johnson's interdependent learning group, known as the Learning Together model, requires four basic elements:
1. Positive interdependence

2. Face-to-Face helping interaction

3. Individual accountability

4. Teaching interpersonal and small group skills. 

    Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI):

    Robert Slavin (1985) and his colleagues have developed a different format for cooperative learning, Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), which they developed for mathematics instruction in grades three to six. TAI follows this pattern:
1. Teaching groups

2. Team formation 

3. Self-instructional materials

4. Team study

5. Team scores and team recognition. 

    Computer-Based Cooperative Learning:

    Computer assistance can alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using cooperative leaming methods, particularly the tasks of managing information, allocating different individual responsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional material, analyzing learner responses, administering tests, and scoring and providing remediation for those tests (Figure 2.2).

 Games 

    A game is an activity in which participants follow prescribed rules that differ from those of real-life as they strive to attain a challenging goal. Games can incorporate the common features of behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, and social psychology Students enjoy actively participating in games. Games provide the opportunity to practice content, eg., math facts, vocabulary, and problem-solving skills. Individual differences are accommodated, particularly in team games. Students receive feedback based on the consequences of their actions, answers, and decisions, Cames do not necessarily take place in realistic contexts, There is no real-world counterpart to tic tac toe or bingo. Cames based on realistic contexts are called simulation games. Most games provide social interactivity The exception is solitaire type games in which players compete against themselves or prescribed standards and do not interact with other players or based. 

    Advantages:

1. Attractive, games provide attractive frameworks for learning activities.

2. Novel, 

3. Atmosphere,

4. Time on task, games can keep learners interested in repetitious talks. 

    Limitation:

1. Competition

2. Distraction

3. Poor design

    Integration :

    Instructional games are particularly well suited to the following: 

1. Attainment of cognitive objectives, particularly those involving recognition, discrimination, or memorization. 

2. Adding motivation to topics that ordinarily attract little student interest.

3. Small group instruction

4. Basic skills

5. Vocabulary building

    Adapting the Content of Instructional Games:

    Some television game shows have been modelled after such parlour games; they can suggest additional frameworks. Here are some sample adaptations:

1. Safety tic-tac-toe

2. Spelling rummy

3. Reading concentration

4. World bingo

Simulation 

    A simulation is an abstraction or simplification of some real-life situation or process. In simulation, participants usually play a role that involves them in interactions with other people or with elements of the simulated environment. 

    Simulation and Problem-Based Learning:

    One particular value of simulation is that it implements the problem-based learning method as directly and dearly as possible. In problem-based learning, the learner is led toward understanding principles through grappling with a problem situation, Most simulations attempt to immerse participants in a problem.

    Simulators:

    Competencies in the motor skill domain require practice under conditions of high feedback, which gives learners the feel of the action. Although it might be ideal to practise Gce such a skill under real-life conditions, some (e.g, piloting an airplane or driving a car) can be practised much more safely and conveniently by means of simulated conditions. The device employed to represent a physical system in a scaled-down form is referred to as a simulator, Simple simulators are in widespread use in applications such as training workers in a range of manual-skills form CPR to welding.

    Advantages:

1. Realistic

2. Safe

3. Simplified

    Limitation:

1. Time-consuming

2. Oversimplification

    Integration:

1. Training in motor skills

2. Instruction in social interaction and human relations

3. Development of decision-making skills

    Role Plays:

    Roleplay refers to a type of simulation in which the dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction among people. In essence, a role play asks someone to imagine that she is another person or is in a particular situation, the person then behaves as the other person would or in the way the situation seems to demand. The purpose is to learn something about another kind of person or about the dynamics of an unfamiliar situation. The role-play simulation has proven to be a motivating and effective method of developing social skills, especially empathy. 

Simulation Games

    A simulation game combines the attributes of a simulation (role-playing, a model of reality) with the attributes of a game (striving toward a goal, specific rules). Like a simulation, it may be relatively high or low in its modelling of reality. like a game, it may or may not entail competition. Because they combine the characteristics of both simulations and games, instructional simulation games have advantages, limitations, and applications in common with both formats. 

Learning Centers 

    Learning centres should encourage active participation rather than just sitting and reading a book. Most learning centres provide student practice with feedback through individualized activities. Learning centres tend not to provide realistic contexts and not to provide social interaction. They tend to be designed for use by individuals, however they can be designed for pairs of triads. 

    Advantages:

1. Self-pacing

2. Active learning

3. Teacher role

    Limitations:

1. Cost.

2. Managements.

3. Student responsibility.

4. Student isolation. 

Programmed Instruction

    Programmed instruction was chronologically the first technology for learning and is an explicit application of principles of learning theory-operant Conditioning or reinforcement theory. Since reinforcement theory suggested that people have a tendency to learn behaviours that are followed by reinforcers, psychologist B. F. Skinner wanted to develop a method of instruction whereby students would spend most of their time performing the kills or displaying the knowledge being aught-not just sitting and listening. And each performance must somehow be followed by a reinforcer, Skinner decided that since humans were naturally curious, he could use "knowledge of the correct response" as the reinforcer that would follow the correct performance. 

    Advantages:

1. Self-pacing

2. Practice and feedback

3. Reliable

4. Effective

    Limitations:

1. Program design

2. Tedious

3. Lack of social interaction

Programmed Tutoring

    Programmed tutoring (also referred to as structured tutoring) is one to one method instruction in which the tutor responses are programmed in advance in the form of carefully structured printed instructions. In a typical problem, the tutor and student go through the lesson material together.

    Advantages:

1. Self-pacing

2. Practice and feedback

3. Reliable

4. Effective

    Limitations:

1. Labor intensive

2. Development cost

Programmed Teaching

    Programmed teaching, also known as direct instruction, is an attempt to apply the principles of programmed instruction in a large group setting. In this approach, a whole class is broken into smaller groups of 5 to 10 students. This programme teaching is seen by its proponents as a total system for organizing classroom instruction. The lessons are designed to generate high rates of responding by all students. Also, it can be regarded as a technology for learning in that has a definite pattern: teacher cue, unison vocal response, and reinforcement or correction.

Personalized System of Instruction

    Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), sometimes referred to as the Keller Plan after Fred Keller, who developed it. It can be described as a template for managing instruction. It is derived from the same roots as mastery learning, the idea that all students can succeed--achieve basic mastery--but need different amounts of time and practice to get there. A major principle of mastery learning is that students should not be permitted to go on to later units of study they have demonstrated that they have mastered the prerequisite knowledge and skills. 

    Advantages:

1. Self-pacing

2. Mastery

3. Effective

    Limitations:

1. Development cost

2. Behaviorist commitment

3. Self-discipline